What features are distinguished in society various

1. Select the correct answers. For what signs of Mendel elected peas as an object - page number 1/1

1. Select the correct answers. For what signs of G. Imedel elected peas as an object of his research:
A. Cross-solely
+ B. self-poll
+ In. annual
Perennial,
+ D. has contrast signs
E. Smooth signs.
2. Select the correct answer. How many alternative features are taken into account in mono-librid crossing:
+ A. one,
B. 2,
IN 3,
G. 4 or more.
3. Select the correct answer. In which case, the signs of dominant and recessive are distinguished:

A. similarity,

G.Prepaled.

A. Gomosigot,

A. Hybrid,

B. Negibrid,
B. Mixed,

Clean.

B. Artificial pollination.

A. Yellow and green,

A. In one chromosome,

B. In different pairs of chromosomes.

10. Select the correct answer. Where allelic genes are located:
A. In one chromosome,

B. in homologous chromosomes,

A. lethal,

B.N. Sukachev,

B. populations,

A. Flora and Fauna,

B. Biocenosis and Biotop,

B. Soil and vegetation cover.

A. Abiotic components of the ecosystem,

V. Anthropogenic components of the ecosystem.

B. servomechanisms,

B. Feedback mechanisms.
18. Select the correct answer. A combination of populations operating in a certain space of a abiotic environment is called:

A. Biocenosis,

B. Biojocenosis,

V. Biotop.

A. Anthropogenic factors

B. Limit factors,

B. Environmental factors,

G. Biotic factors.
20. Select the correct answer. Effective factors include:

A. Duration of the day and night,

B. Composition and soil properties.

21. Select the correct answer. In which cells there is the greatest EPS development:

A. Generative,

B. somatic,

V. secretory,

A. Stage of ripening;

B. Stage of breeding;
B. Stage of formation;

G. Stage of Growth.

G. 6.
24. Select the correct answer. Name the stage of ovogenesis, during which there is an intensive admission to the cell and the accumulation of nutrients in it:

V. Kariokines;

Cytokinez.
27. Select the correct answer. On the formation of which cell structures are affected by some poisons, for example, colchicine, stopping mitosis in metaphase:

A. Aktinovy \u200b\u200bfibers (microfilaments);

A. Head,

B. Tail,

The Intermediate Department.
30. Select the correct answer. The diameter of the human egg is approximately:
A. 60 μm,
+ B. 120 μm,
B. 180 μm,

A. Greenhouse effect, the appearance of fogs,

B. Strengthening ultraviolet radiation and mutagenic effect,
B. Down temperature and increased air humidity,

G. Reducing the intensity of photosynthesis and reducing the transparency of the atmosphere.

1) cell;

2) biogeocetic;

3) organized;

4) molecular genetic;

5) population-species;

6) biosphere

A.4, 1, 2, 3, 5, 2.6

Sagarozes with proteins.

A. nucleotides;

B. Azotyst bases;
V. Glisserin;

G. amino acids;

D. Glucose
35. Select the correct answer. The protein molecule consists of consistently located:

A. Triplets;

V. nucleotides;

G. Azotyst grounds
36. Select the correct answer. Purine nitrogen bases include:
A. Adenin, Timin;
B.Adenin, cytosin;
+ In. Adenal, Guanin
37. Select the correct answer. In the process of DNA protein biosynthesis:

A. Slit Matrix for the protein molecule;

B. serves as a matrix of the day of immature rye;

B. serves as a matrix for mature and-RNA;

G. is responsible for transferring amino acids to the place of formation of a protein molecule.
38. Select the correct answer. Metabolism is:

A. External exchange;

B.Vnutrene exchange;

B. The metabolism and energy;

G. The set of dissymimillation processes;

D. Set of assimilation processes

A. Biopolymer system;

B. System of cytoplasm and kernel;

V.Komplex kernel, inclusions and organelles;

The elementary self-regulating system, the basis of vital activity of living organisms.
40. Select the correct answer. Country cards include:
+ A. Sine-greenweed algae and bacteria;
B.Virus and bacteria;

V. Viruses and Blue - Green Algae

41. Select the correct answer. Gastrol - this is the development stage of the embryo:

A. one-layer

B. Double-Power,
V. Multilayer,
Four-layer
42. Select the correct answer. Who is a specific laundry carrier:
A. Mukha Tset,

B. Komara,

B. Triatomic bugs,

A. in the smear of Cala 8 nuclear cysts,

B. In the smear of Cala 4 nuclear cysts,

A. Plasmodium Sp.,

B. Tripanosoma Sp.,

V. Leishmania Sp.,

Lamblia Sp.,

D. TOXOPLASMA SP.

A. Sarkodova,

Trichomonas Vaginalis and Trypanosoma Cruzi.

A. liver,

V. in Likvore,

E. in the skin.

A. Lepolomodnaya,

B. Critidial,

V. Typanosomic,

Metacclic,

D. Leishmanial.

A. BALTIDIAZ,

V. Giardiasis,

Kishchen Trichomonadosis

In science there are many mutually exclusive opinions about the causes, time and place of origin modern man. Of unresolved questions becomes the greater, the more we give answers to previous questions.
There was a huge number of predecessors of a modern man, not all of which were our ancestors. Their development can be separated at the stage or to allocate groups of them according to biological systematics.
Together with the biological and evolution, the social, reconstructed, in particular, the methods of archeology.
According to the most reasoned point of view, a man of modern appearance and behavior arose in Africa or the Middle East from 100 to 40 thousand years ago.
About 35 thousand years on earth exists only modern view The person spread over the entire planet.
One of the weakest places of the above evolutionary theory is the dating of the remains found and generally determining the age of the Earth and the duration of the whole process of evolution, which led to the emergence of living matter from inanimate.
The second important thing is still not a declared question in science - this is the coordination of the evolution and the second law of thermodynamics. The existence of at the same time universal evolution and the law of growth of entropy as universal laws of the material universe (as a closed system) is impossible, as they are incompatible.

Control questions

1. Why is the question of man's origin so worries the minds of people?
2. What is the content of the term "anthropogenesis"?
3. How do religious, philosophical and scientific concepts of human origin relate to each other?
4. What complex of sciences imply, speaking about multidisciplinality anthropogenesis theory?
5. What features of the structure of the body and lifestyle helped the ancient people survive in the struggle for existence?
6. What are the main controversial moments of evolutionary theory?

Literature

Mandatory

1. Kharitonov V.M. Introduction to the theory of anthropogenesis and the archeology of Paleolithic. - M.: Publishing House of Moscow State University, 1998.
2. Roginsky Y.Ya., Levin M.G. Anthropology. - M.: high school, 1978.
3. Chryshanfova E.N., carriers I.V. Anthropology: textbook. - M.: Higher School, 2002.

Additional

1. Vernadsky V.I. Reflections of naturalist. Scientific thought as a planetary phenomenon. - M.: Science, 1977.
2. Moiseev N.N. Man and noosphere. - M.: Young Guard, 1990.
3. Ginzburg V.L. Successes of physical sciences. - 1999. - T. 169. - Vol. four.
4. Creation hypothesis / ed. J. Morland. - Simferopol: Christ. Scientific apologist. Center, 2000.
5. Morris Biblical grounds for modern science. - SPb.: Bible for all, 1995.
6. Olkhovsky V.S. Comparison of the doctrines of evolution and creation in the light of modern physics // Man and Christian worldview. - Simferopol, 2001. - Vol. 6. - P. 266-272.
7. Prigogine I., Stengers I. order from chaos. New human dialogue with nature. - M.: Progress, 1986.
8. Nikolis, I. Prigogin. Cognition of complex. - M.: Mir, 1990.
9. Junker R., Shero Z. History of origin and development of life. - Minsk: Kairos, 1997.

Topic 4.
Constitutional and age anthropology

Constitutional anthropology

The complex of individual morpho-functional features of the individual is called the Constitution. The doctrine of the Constitution, or Constitutionality, is one of the most complex problems of anthropology. This is partly due to a different understanding of the term "Constitution" itself and the transformation of its content in the development of this field of anthropology.
In the literal translation from Latin constitutio.means condition, addition or property, so often the term "constitution" understand how synonym for the physique. This is partly so, but the physique is only one of the parties to the human constitution - its external morphological manifestation. Another, not so obvious, but very not even a tangible side is manifested in the health of the individual, its stability to the conditions of the external environment, the ability to "escalate" to their changes and fluctuations. It manifests itself in some mental features. This functional aspect of the Constitution is no less, and possibly more important than its more familiar external manifestation.
In the process of growth and development, people respond differently to changing the surrounding conditions - natural climatic and social factors.
In general, this reaction lies in the interaction of two opposite phenomena:
Resistance to these effects is the resistance of the body;
The desire to adapt to them is the reactivity of the body. It is this measure of the ability to adequate reaction to changes in external conditions in the process of growth and the development of the body is called the Constitution in the general understanding.
At the same time, as any other biological phenomenon, the constitution is conveniently considered in its individual manifestations - aspects. In this regard, the concepts of the general Constitution and private constitutions usually share the concepts of the general Constitution.
Under increased the Constitution means the integral characteristics of the human body, its "total" property to the react to the environmental influence in this way, without disturbing the links of individual signs of the body as a whole. This is a qualitative characteristic of all individual characteristics of the subject, genetically enshrined and capable of changing in the process of growth and development under the influence of environmental factors.
The general constitution determines many physical, physiological and mental properties of the individual, but they may vary depending on the conditions of its development.
Under private the constitution is understood to be individual morphological and (or) functional complexes of the body, contributing to its safe existence. This concept includes Gabitus (external appearance), somatic type, type of physique, features of the functioning of humoral and endocrine systems, metrics of metabolic processes, etc.
The definitions of the general and private constitution are quite extensive and vague. However, it is necessary to add another wording, also very "foggy": constitutionit is a stable complex biological characteristic of the organism, in fact, the specific rate of the body's reaction and the systems included in it reflecting the modification of the individual genotype under the influence of environmental factors. The essence of the concept is thus quite close to the definition of the phenotype.
Constitutional signs are considered as complex,those. Characterized by functional unity.
Based on the above, this complex should include:
morphological characteristics of the body (physique);
physiological indicators;
Psychical properties of the individual.
In anthropology, private morphological constitutions are most developed.
The development of constitutional schemes is devoted to the work of a huge number of anthropologists, physicians and psychologists. Among them, Viola, L. Manouvori, K. Sigo, I. Galant, V. Shtefko and A. Ostrovsky, E. Krechmer, V. Bunak, W. Sheldon, B. Hit and L. Carter, V. Chetsov, M. Utkin and N. Lutovinova, V. Derdyabin, etc.
Constitutional classifications can be divided into two groups:
morphological, or somatologic, schemes in which constitutional types are determined on the basis of external signs of the Soma (body);
Functional schemes in which special attention is given to the functional state of the body.
Many of these schemes are historical interest. Consider the most important and most common.
E. Krechmer believed that heredity is the only source of morphological diversity.
It should be noted that his views were the basis of creating most later classifications. The types allocated by them under other names can be found in many schemes, even if the principles of their construction differ. Obviously, this is a consequence of the reflection of the real diversity of people marked by E. Krechmery in the form of discrete types. However, this scheme is not devastable: it has a specific practical purpose - the preliminary diagnosis of mental pathologies. E. Krechmer allocated three main constitutional type: leptosomal(or asthenic) picnicand athletic.
Similar, but devoid of many shortcomings of the previous scheme, is a somatotipological classification developed by V. Bunac in 1941
Its fundamental difference from the scheme E. Krechmer is a strict determination of the importance of constitutional signs. The scheme is built in two coordinates of the physique - the degree of development of fat and the degree of development of muscles. Additional features are the shape of the chest, the abdominal area and the back. The scheme V. Bunac is intended to determine the normal constitution only in adult men and not applicable to women; The length of the body, the bone component, as well as the anthropological signs of the head in it are not taken into account.
The combination of two coordinates allows us to consider three basic and four intermediate types of physique. Intermediate options combine signs of basic types. They were allocated by V. Bunac, since in practice, very often the severity of the signs of signs of signs are not quite clear and the signs of different types are often combined with each other. Two more types of physique the author allocated both indefinite, although, in essence, they are also intermediate (Table 4.1).
The presented somatotipological scheme V. Bunaka is most well known and is often used in the works of domestic anthropologists.

Table 4.1.
Somatotipology V. Bunaca

The schemes specifically designed to describe the constitution of women were developed repeatedly. The most used of them is perhaps the scheme of I. Galant (Table 4.2), which allocated three types of types, differing not only by morphological, but also psychophysiological features (however, the author did not provide the characteristics of the latter).

Table 4.2.
Women's Constitutional Scheme I. Galant

Table 4.3.
Scheme for determining the constitutional types of children and adolescents V. Shtefko and A. Ostrovsky

After analyzing the entire spectrum of existing constitutional schemes (and their much more than was considered), the domestic anthropologist V. Derdyabin allocated two common approaches to solving the problem of continuity and discreteness in constitutionalism:
for a priorithe approach of the scheme is still to create it has its own idea of \u200b\u200bwhat the types of physique are. Based on this, it designs its typology, making focus on those signs or their complexes that correspond to its a priori ideas about the patterns of morphological variability. This principle is used in the overwhelming majority of the constitutional schemes considered by us;
a posteriorithe approach implies not a simple imposition of the scheme of individual morphological diversity on objectively existing variability - the constitutional system itself is based on the fixed scale of variability, taking into account its patterns. With this approach, theoretically, the objective patterns of morphofunctional bonds and the correlation of signs will be theoretically better. Coming down to a minimum and subjectivity of typology. This uses the device multidimensional mathematical statistics.
Based on the measurements of 6,000 men and women aged 18 and 60 V. Verdyabin allocated three main vector of somatic variability, which together represent a three-dimensional coordinate space:
The first axis describes the variability of the total body size (dimensions of the skeleton) by the coordinate of the macro and microsomy. One of her poles is people with small shared sizes (microsomy);other - Individuals with large body sizes (macros);
The second axis shares people by the ratio of muscle and bone components (determining the form of the motor system) and has variations from leptosomy(loose development of the muscular component compared to the development of the skeleton) to brahisomy(reverse ratio of components);
The third axis describes the variability of the subcutaneous grease of different body segments and has two extreme manifestations - from hypoadiposnosis(weak grease) to hyperodiposnosis(strong grease). "Constitutional space" is open from all sides, so any person can be characterized with it - all existing constitutional variability fits into it. Practical application is carried out by calculating 6-7 typological indicators with the regression equations of 12-13 anthropological measurements. Regression equations are presented for women and men. According to these indicators there is an exact place of the individual in the three-dimensional space of the constitutional scheme.
A similar methodical approach was successfully applied by M. Negasheva to construct the morphological typology of the structure of the face. The main obtained axes of the scheme describe the overall size and features of the form (relationship of the departments). Sustainable associations associate relative narrowlyzee in breast-type men and wide-astrone - in the abdominal, rounded face in women of picnic type, etc.
Like the V. Dreyabin system, the classification of M. Negasheva turned out to be very stable when checking on various ethno-territorial and racial groups of man - allocated patterns dependally depend on the factor of the race and are associated with more deep reasons (possibly reflect the phenomenon of biomorphosis).
An important property of the V. Dreyabin system is the possibility of a visual display of continuity of constitutional variability. The selection of individual types in this scheme is extremely conditionally and is carried out to a greater extent for convenience (it is necessary to somehow navigate in space). We can clearly allocate the extreme versions of the physique and the variant of the wide normal. Finally, the resulting scheme is an open system: for each separately or immediately, statistical connections with any morphological, physiological, psychological, psychological, and other signs can be easily found in all represented assets of the physique.

Briefly about the main thing

A person has a special type of variability, reflecting the potential of the relationship between the body with the medium, is constitutional variability.
Constitutional variability is continuous in all its parameters, but existing constitutional schemes reflect it in the form of conditional discrete types and are designed to simplify the pattern of continuity of variability.
Constitutional differences besides other reasons have a real genetic basis. They are due to the peculiarities of the process of the growth and development of the body, a sexual dimorphism, etc.
External manifestations of the Constitution are only one side. There are extremely diverse functional, mainly biochemical constitutional signs that in some way correspond to external.

Control questions

1. What is the Constitution?
2. What are the principles of allocating constitutional types?
3. What features are constitutional types allocate?
4. What constitutional schemes do you know?
5. For what principles can I share existing constitutional systems?
6. What are the main constitutional types exist (common to different schemes)?
7. Determine what is your constitutional type (for what scheme you determine it and why exactly on it)?

Literature

Mandatory

1. Vasilyev S.V. The basics of age and constitutional anthropology. - M.: Publishing House Row, 1996.
2. Morphology of man / ed. B.A. Nikityuk, V.P. CHTECOVA. - M.: Publishing House of Moscow State University, 1990.
3. Levontin R. Human Individuality: Heredity and Wednesday. - M.: Progress, 1993.
4. Chryshanfova E.N. Constitution and biochemical personality. - M.: Publishing House of Moscow State University, 1990.

Additional

1. Anthropology: Reader. - M.: Publishing House of Moscow State University, 1997.
2. Bunak V.V. Rank Homo,his emergence and subsequent evolution. - M.: Science, 1980.
3. Clearine A.I., Chetsov V.P. Biological problems Teachings on the Constitution of Human. - L.: Science, 1979.
4. Krechmer E. Body structure and character. - M.: Eksmo, 2003.
5. Rusalov V.M. Biological foundations of individual psychological differences. - M.: Science, 1979.
6. Williams R. Biochemical Individuality. - M.: Mir, 1960.

Age anthropology

Ontogenesis(from Greek. ontos.- creature I. genesis.- Origin), or life cycle - one of the key biological concepts. This is life before birth and after it, it is a continuous process of individual growth and development of the body, its age-related change. The development of the body in no way should be submitted as a simple increase in size. The biological development of a person is a complex morphogenetic event, this is the result of numerous metabolic processes, cell division, increase their size, differentiation process, formation of tissues, organs and their systems.
The growth of any multicellular organism, starting with everything from one cell (zygotes), can be divided into four major stages:
1) hyperplasia (cell division) - an increase in the number of cells as a result of consecutive mitoses;
2) hypertrophy (cell growth) - an increase in cell size as a result of water absorption, protoplasm synthesis, etc.;
3) determination and differentiation of cells; deterministiccells are called "chosen" the program of further development. In the course of this development, the cells specialize to perform certain functions, i.e. There are them differentiationon cell types;
4) morphogenesis - the final result of the processes mentioned is the formation of cellular systems - tissues, as well as organs and organ systems.
Everything, without exception, the development stage is conjugate with biochemical activity. Changes occurring at the cellular level lead to a change in the shape, structure and function of cells, tissues, organs and, finally, as a whole, the body. Even if obvious quantitativechanges (actually height), in the body constantly go qualityperestroika at all levels of the organization - from genetic (DNA activity) to phenotypic (form, structure and function of organs, their systems and the body as a whole). Thus, it was during the growth and development of the body that a unique hereditary program is being implemented under the influence and control of various and always unique environmental factors. With transformations occurring in the process of ontogenesis, the "occurrence" of all types of variability of biological signs of a person is connectedincluding those that were discussed earlier.
The study of ontogenesis is a peculiar key to understanding the phenomenon of human biological variability. These knowledge is essential for understanding the individual differences in the form and functions of the body, since many of these features are determined by differences in the relative growth rate of individual parts of the body. Different aspects of this phenomena are studying embryology and biology of development, physiology and biochemistry, molecular biology and genetics, medicine, pediatrics, age-related psychology and other disciplines.
The same problem is devoted to a separate direction of biological anthropology - age anthropology, or auxology(from Greek. auxano.- grow).
Common tasks of age anthropology:
study of the variability of anthropological signs in the process of growth and development;
Detection of mechanisms of various transformations (primarily morphological and functional) in human ontogenesis. We immediately note that these studies are conducted with a wide range of biological and social factors - otherwise they will not make sense;
The study of geographic (environmental) and epoch (historical) features of the human development process. Morphological (or somatic) manifestation of ontogenetic variability is perhaps the most obvious age event for our perception, except for changes during the formation of the psyche.
Growth and development - a complex multifactor phenomenon that remains the greatest mystery, far from the end of the infant modern science.
Characteristic of human growth process called biology alleometric(from Greek. alios.- other). Unlike isometricgrowth (characteristic of a number of multicellular) during the development of the organs and parts of the human body increases disproportionately to each other. They grow with different speeds compared to the rest of the somatic parameters and relatively each otherThe result of which is the change in body proportions.
Ontogenetic human development can be characterized by common features:
continuity- The growth of individual organs and human body systems is not infinite, it goes along the so-called limited type. The finite values \u200b\u200bof each sign are due to genetically, i.e. There is a reaction rate. But our body is an open biological system, constantly and continuously developing throughout life. There is not a single parameter (and not only biological), which would not be throughout life in development or change;
graduality and irreversibility;the continuous development process can be divided into conditional stages - periods, or steps, growth. Skip any of these stages is impossible, as it is impossible to return to the features of the structure that have already been manifested in previous stages;
cyclic;although ontogenesis is a continuous process, the pace of development (the rate of changes in signs) can differ significantly in time. A person has periods of revitalizing and braking growth. There is a cyclicality associated with the seasons of the year (for example, an increase in body length occurs mainly in the summer months, and the weight - in the fall), as well as the daily (for example, the greatest growth activity falls on the night hours, when the secretion of growth hormone - STG) is most active a number of others;
heterochronyor difficultness(The basis of alometricality) is an unequal rate of ripening of different systems of the body and different features within the same system. Naturally, in the first stages of ontogenesis, the most important, vital systems are ripening;

Question 1. What is called society? What areas of people are entitled to the structure of society?

Society is a combination of people combined by the method of manufacturing material benefits at a certain level of historical development, certain production relations. Circle of people united by the community of position, origin, interests, etc.

Public life spheres are large, sustainable, relatively independent subsystems of human activity.

Each sphere includes:

Certain types of human activity (for example, educational, political, religious);

Social institutions (such as family, school, party, church);

The established relationship between people (i.e. communications arising in the process of activity of people, such as the relationship of exchange and distribution in the economic sphere).

Traditionally, four main spheres of public life are distinguished:

Social (peoples, nations, classes, sexual agents, etc.)

Economic (productive forces, production relations)

Political (state, party, socio-political movements)

Spiritual (religion, moral, science, art, education).

Question 2. Do you know the society in which there is no social inequality? Why do people unite in groups?

Communism is a hypothetical public and economic system based on social equality, social ownership of the means of production.

The most frequent reasons that are forced people to unite in groups are the following needs: achieving any goals, strengthening power, ensuring security, communication, self-esteem, obtaining a certain status, etc.

Combining into groups, people feel stronger and more confident in solving various problems. The combination of people in the group can also increase the power of its members: what is difficult to achieve one, together to achieve much easier.

Question 3. For what features (criteria) allocate various strata in society?

The relationship of the main elements social sphere Creates the social structure of society. Most often, large social groups are considered to be such elements: classes, social layers, professional groups, etc.

These groups do not just vary with each other. They form a hierarchical system: higher, middle, lower classes. In the natural sciences, such a vertical received the name of the stratification (stratum - layer). Then this term began to be used in social studies for the designation of the social stratification of society. The graphic model of the society can serve as a pyramid: a small number of the upper layer, more numerous average classes and quantitatively predominate lower groups. However, for modern economically developed countries, the graphic model is rather a rhombus: they are a significant share of the population (more than 60%), the average segments of the population are.

Such a location of social groups indicates social inequality in society. Sociologists define it as unequal access to the main resources, which are known to be limited.

The main criteria for the separation of society to the strata sociologists consider income, power, education and prestige. In other words, groups distinguish: in terms of income, including accumulated income (wealth); by opportunities to influence the adoption of political decisions, control the activities of people; According to the degree of education; in prestige - public assessment of significance, attractiveness of certain social Positions. As a rule, wealth, power, prestige are concentrated on the upper positions of the social staircase, often representatives of the highest classes have a good education. However, rank positions may not coincide.

Thus, only those indicators that allow to build i scale of grades can be the bases of stratification: more - less, better - worse, prestigious - disavered, etc.

Question 4. What is the social inequality? What are his reasons?

Social inequality is a form of differentiation, in which individual individuals, social groups, layers, classes are located on different steps of a vertical social hierarchy and have unequal life chances and opportunities to meet needs.

The problem of social inequality is in modern society One of the most important. Explanations of the reasons for this phenomenon and its estimates are different. According to one point of view, there are particularly important and responsible functions in any society. The limited number of gifted people can perform them. Making these people to carry out these functions, society opens access to scarce benefits. From this point of view, social stratification is inevitable in any society, moreover, it is useful because it ensures its normal life and development. There is another position: Social bundle is the result of an unfair public device, which is based on the assignment of funds to the owners of the main goods. Supporters of such views conclude: Social bundle should be liquidated, the road to this lies through the elimination of private ownership.

Question 5. What process got the name of social mobility?

Move individuals and entire groups within social system Call social mobility. Break horizontal and vertical mobility. Horizontal social mobility is associated with changes in social status within the same strata. For example, biology teacher retracted into geography teachers. Vertical social mobility is expressed in motion along the stairs of the social staircase. Moreover, it can be as climbing - in this case they talk about ascending mobility and movement down - downward social mobility. Continuing our example, we can say that the teacher of the university who became the head of the department, carried out a social climb, and the transition from the post of rector for teaching work is a decline social status. Social drop, as well as climb, can perform entire groups.

Question 6. What contributes to the promotion of the social staircase?

What mechanisms, or how are they called sociologists, elevators, contribute to ascending social mobility?

One of them is marriage with a representative of a higher social layer. This way and today is considered many of the most lungs and short.

The most reliable in economically developed countries is the promotion associated with obtaining education. It is a good education that provides prestigious and highly paid work.

There are social mobility in society and political mechanisms: entry into the ruling party, active participation in its work, nomination to leadership positions, election to parliament or work in the government.

There are other social mobility channels. They are the greater the more open, society is dynamic. But personal efforts mean a lot. To get a good education, master the desired profession, to express yourself on a political or other field, it takes a lot of difficulty, perseverance, initiative.

Question 7. What are the main signs of the social group?

In the process of interactions between people, numerous social groups arise. In sociology, various definitions of the concept of "Social Group" are given. Some authors define it as a totality of people who occupy the same position in society or perform the same role. Others emphasize that the group is a collection of people interacting in a certain way based on mutual expectations of appropriate behavior.

Thus, the signs of the social group can be considered: the presence of interaction between some combination of people; regulation of relations with certain rules, expectations of relevant behavior; Awareness of your belonging to this group and recognition by others.

Question 8. Name the main types of social groups.

Depending on the basis for the discretion of the groups of the criterion, large and small, primary and secondary, formal and informal groups are distinguished.

According to sociologists, the optimal number of small group is 5-7 people. In this case, its composition is usually stable. Examples of a small group can serve as a family, students of the same class, members of the sports section. Some researchers allocate global social groups - community (nationality). In the small group, people set direct personal contacts (each with each), while indirect connections are dominated in a large group. According to this criterion, the nature of the interaction - the groups are divided into primary and secondary. In the primary group, people are not considered only as media of certain functions. Everyone is perceived here in all its completeness, with the entire combination of individual traits. Relationships here are regulated mainly by group opinions that have been estimated. In secondary groups, people are no longer so much as a person as in their functional destinations. Primary groups include colleagues on work, a steady friendly company. But the person's membership in the trade union, the political party speaks of his belonging to secondary groups.

Such groups (with their specific public challenge, structure, separation of functions, the separation of management from immediate performers) are called formal.

We will continue our topic on the example. Suppose that in one enterprise a small group of young workers is passionate about fishing. They are often found no time, together go beyond the city. In this group there are no supervisors and subordinates, everyone is interested in the opinion of others. Here they appreciate not so much for production successes as for sincere qualities. Such a group of sociologists will be informal. We can consider it small and primary.

It happens that the formal and informal group coincide, for example, a friendly school class, a scientific laboratory, whose employees support constant personal contacts.

Small primary informal groups are very important for each person: under their influence (first of all the family), the assimilation of social norms begins. Views, assessments that are addressed in these groups, significantly affect the worldview and behavior of the person.

Question 9. What role is social conflicts play in the development of society?

There are local conflicts (affecting individual sides of public life), large-scale (covering significant spheres or even the whole society), global (most of the worlds of the world are drawn). Within the framework of a separate society, the most large-scale conflict is the social revolution. Studying history, you learned a lot about social revolutions: about the reasons for their occurrence, manifestations and consequences. Often they were destructive. Violate the established way of life and less large-scale conflicts. It is this circumstance that leads many researchers to the conclusion about the negative role of conflicts in public life. Not conflict, they consider, and consent, harmony, cooperation is necessary for public Development. Without them, society cannot maintain sustainability, accumulate and transmit material and spiritual values \u200b\u200bto new generations.

At the same time, it is impossible not to take into account that the conflict carries not only destructive, but also a constructive, positive start. It signals about the urgent contradictions, with the skillful resolution, there is an improvement in the situation, opportunities are opened for further development.

Question 10. Make a social portrait of a typical middle class representative in our society, using the following indicators: education, marital status, sources and average income size, place of residence (city, country side), housing conditions, forms of leisure.

Typical middle class representative:

Education is a higher or secondary special, an increase in education is necessary;

Sem position - married, has 1-2 children;

Sources and average income size - Official work + part-time; 30-40 thousand rubles.

Place of residence is the city;

Housing conditions - 2-bedrooms. flat;

Forms of leisure - at the cottage, in the village. Rarely abroad.

Question 11. Imagine a society in which the main criteria of stratification would be the age and level of education. What groups of the population, in your opinion, would occupy higher positions, and which would be at the bottom of the social staircase?

If this happened, there would be several groups. The first, people are 40-45 years old, with two-three higher education, having due experience. The second step is the people of 30-35 years old with one or two higher education, working for the benefit of society. Third stratus, people are 20-25 years old who receive education in this moment Or just got it and are busy employment. As a rule, organizations do not trust the young specialist and therefore it is difficult for them to find a suitable job. The fourth stage, disciples and students - from 7 to 20 years, these children only learn and they are all ahead here it is even hard to judge the level of intellect. And the lowest stratus, these are people with an unhappy life who do not have the opportunity to learn they are forced to wander, survive.

Question 12. Some sociologists believe that education today can be bought, it is derived from income and therefore cannot be among the main criteria for social stratification. And what do you think? Your answer is explaining.

Education in our time can be bought for money. It may be a diploma, certificate, etc. But when this person goes to a purchased diploma or something else to get a job, he will most likely not be accepted so he does not know how to do anything in its specialty. Therefore, it can be among the criteria of the socio stratification.

List of used literature .................................. 21

1. Classification features and corresponding to the classes of systems.

Classification of systems.

The classification is the distribution of a certain set of objects to classes according to the most essential features. Requirements for building classification are as follows:

in the same classification, it is necessary to apply the same basis;

the volume of elements of the classified set should be equal to the volume of elements of all educated classes;

classification members (educated classes) must mutually exclude each other, that is, there must be non-intersecting;

a division into classes (for multi-stage classifications) should be continuous, that is, when moving from one level of the hierarchy to another, it is necessary for the next class to study the nearest system on the hierarchical structure of the system.

In accordance with these requirements, the classification of systems involves dividing them into two types - abstract and material (Fig. 1).

Material systems are real-time facilities. Among the variety of material systems, there are natural and artificial systems.

Natural systems are a totality of nature objects, and artificial systems are a set of socio-economic or technical objects.

Natural systems, in turn, are divided into astrochosmic and planetary, physical and chemical.

Artificial systems can be classified by several signs, the main of which is the role of a person in the system. On this basis, two classes of systems can be distinguished: technical and organizational and economic systems.

The functioning of technical systems is based on the processes made by the machines, and at the heart of the organization of organizational and economic systems - the processes performed by man-machine complexes.

Abstract systems are a speculative representation of images or models of material systems that are divided into descriptive (logical) and symbolic (mathematical).

Logical systems are the result of a deductive or inductive representation of material systems. They can be considered as systems of concepts and definitions (a set of ideas) on the structure, the basic laws of states and the dynamics of material systems.

Symbolic systems are formalization of logical systems, they are divided into three classes:

static mathematical systems or models that can be viewed as a description of the means of the mathematical apparatus of the state of material systems (equations of the state);

dynamic mathematical systems or models that can be viewed as mathematical formalization of the processes of material (or abstract) systems;

quasistatic (quasidinamic) systems that are in an unstable position between the statics and the dynamics, which in some interactions behave like static, and with others - as dynamic.

However, there are other classifications in the literature.

Large systems. A large system is understood as a combination of material resources, funds for collecting, transferring and processing information, people-operators engaged in servicing these funds, and managers who are involved in proper rights and liability for decision-making. Large systems are systems that are not observed at the same time from the position of one observer or in time or in space.

Examples of large systems: information system; passenger transport of a major city; manufacturing process; Flight control of a large airfield; Energy system, etc.

The characteristic features of large systems include the following:

large system size, i.e. a large number of parts and elements, inputs and outputs, a variety of functions performed;

relationship and interaction between elements;

the focus and controllability of the system, the availability of the whole system of the common goal and the purpose, asked and adjusted in the systems of higher levels;

the complex hierarchical structure of the organization of the system, which provides for a combination of centralized management with autonomy of subsystems;

the integrity and complexity of behavior: complex, intertwing relationships between variables, including feedback loops, lead to the fact that the change in one entails the change in many other variables.

In order to obtain the necessary knowledge of a large object, the observer consistently examines it in parts, building its subsystem. Next, it moves to a higher stage, the next level of the hierarchy and, considering the subsystems already as objects, builds a unified system for them. If the set subsystems turns out again too much so that it is possible to build a common system from them, the procedure is repeated, and the observer moves to the next level of the hierarchy, etc.

Each of the subsystems of one level is described by the same language, and when switching to the next level, the observer is already using a meta language, which is an extension of the first level language at the expense of the description of the properties of this language itself.

If the researcher comes from observation of a real object, a large system is created by the composition - compiling it from small subsystems described by one language.

Operation, opposite composition, there is a decomposition of a large system, that is, partitioning it on the subsystem. It is carried out in order to extract new valuable information from the knowledge of the system as a whole, which cannot be obtained by another. An important conceptual tool of system analysis is the hierarchy of subsystems in a large system. Consideration of systems in the hierarchy makes it possible to identify new properties.

The magnitude of the large system can be measured by different criteria: by number of subsystems; By the number of steps of the hierarchy subsystems.

Complex systems. Sophisticated systems are systems that cannot be composed of some subsystems. This is equal to the fact that:

the observer consistently changes its position in relation to the object and observes it from different sides;

different observers explore the object from different sides.

Each of the observers takes a subset of transparent materials that meet its requirements and criteria. In the area of \u200b\u200bintersection of subsets selected by all observers, Meta Observer selects the only material, working in a meta language that combines the concepts of all low-level languages \u200b\u200band describing their properties and relationships.

The concept of complexity is one of the fundamental in systemic Analysis. Systemic analysis There is a study strategy that takes complexity as a significant, inherent property of objects and shows how valuable information can be retrieved, coming to it from the position of complex systems. According to the American researcher, Russell Akkof, simplicity is not asked at the beginning of the study, but if it can be found at all, it is as a result of the study.

So, a complex system is a system built to solve a multipurpose problem; system reflecting different incomparable aspects of the characteristics of the object; system, to describe which you need to use multiple languages; A system including interconnected complex of different models.

English Cybernetics C. Bir classifies all systems to simple and complex depending on the method of description: deterministic or theoretical and probabilistic. A. I. Berg defines a complex system as a system that can be described at least two different mathematical languages \u200b\u200b(for example, using the theory of differential equations and the BULL algebra).

Very often, complex systems are called systems that can not be correctly described mathematically, or because there is a very large number of elements that are unknown related to each other, or the nature of the phenomena occurring in the system is unknown. All this indicates the absence of a single determination of the complexity of the system.

When developing complex systems, problems occur relating not only to the properties of their components of elements and subsystems, but also to the laws of functioning of the system as a whole. At the same time, a wide range of specific tasks appears, such as the definition of the general structure of the system; organization of interaction between elements and subsystems; accounting of the effect of the external environment; selection of optimal system operation modes; Optimal management of the system, etc.

The harder the system, the greater the attention is paid to the above issues. The mathematical database of the study of complex systems is the theory of systems. In the theory of systems a large system of complex, large-scale system, (Large Scale Systems) is called the system if it consists of a large number of elements interrelated and interacting between themselves and is able to perform complex functions.

A clear boundary separating simple systems from large. The division is conditional and arose due to the emergence of systems that have a combination of subsystems in its composition with the presence of functional redundancy. A simple system can only be in two states: a state of performance (serviceable) and a state of failure (faulty). If the element fails, the simple system either completely terminates the execution of its function, or continues its fulfillment in full, if the refused element is redundant. A large system during the refusal of individual elements and even entire subsystems does not always lose performance, often only decreases the characteristics of its efficiency. This property of large systems is due to their functional redundancy and, in turn, makes it difficult to formulate the concept of "refusal" of the system.

Obviously, large and complex systems are actually two ways to decompose the task of its components or, accordingly, constructing a different method of the system model. This method has received such widespread that the concept of purpose and the criterion in some areas of technology and the research of operations began to consider synonyms.

Dynamic systems. Dynamic systems are constantly changing systems. Any change occurring in the dynamic system is called the process. It is sometimes defined as the input conversion into the system output.

If the system can have only one behavior, it is called a deterministic system.

Probabilistic system. The probabilistic system is a system whose behavior can be predicted with a certain degree of probability based on the study of its past behavior.

Managers. Managing systems are systems with which control processes are investigated in technical, biological and social systems. The central concept here is information - a means of exposure to the system. The control system allows you to maximally simplify the difficult control processes in order to solve the design tasks of the design.

Targeted systems. Purposeful systems are systems with focus, that is, system control and bringing to certain behavior or state, compensating for external perturbations. The achievement of the goal in most cases is probabilistic.

To compile the classification of systems, various classification features can be used. Table 1 shows an example of a classification of systems using basic classification features used in system analysis.

Classification of systems on features

The classification is called splitting classes according to the most essential features. Under the class is a combination of objects with some signs of community. The sign (or the set of features) is the basis (criterion) of classification.

The system can be characterized by one or more features and, accordingly, it can be found in various classifications, each of which can be useful when choosing a research methodology. Usually the purpose of the classification limit the choice of approaches to the display of systems, to develop a description language suitable for the appropriate class.

Real systems are divided into natural (natural systems) and artificial (anthropogenic).

Natural systems: non-residential systems (physical, chemical) and living (biological) nature.

Artificial systems: are created by humanity for their needs or are formed as a result of targeted efforts.

Artificial are divided into technical (technical and economic) and social (public).

The technical system is designed and manufactured by a person at certain purposes.

Social systems include various systems of human society.

The selection of systems consisting of one of the technical devices is almost always conditionally, as they are not able to produce their condition. These systems act as part of larger, including people - organizational and technical systems.

The organizational system, for the effective functioning of which a significant factor is the method of organizing the interaction of people with the technical subsystem is called a human-machine system.

Examples of man-machine systems: car - driver; The plane is a pilot; EUM - user, etc.

Thus, under technical systems understand the unified constructive set of interrelated and interacting objects intended for targeted actions with the task of achieving in the process of functioning of a given result.

Distinctive features of technical systems compared with an arbitrary set of objects or compared with individual elements is structurality (the practical implementation of the relationship between elements), the orientation and interconnectedness of the components and purposefulness.

In order for the system to be resistant to external influences, it must have a stable structure. The choice of structure practically defines the technical appearance as the entire system, so its subsystems, and elements. The question of the feasibility of using a particular structure should be solved on the basis of the specific system assignment. The structure of the system is also dependent on the redistribution of functions in the case of a complete or partial waste of individual elements, and, consequently, reliability and vitality of the system with the specified characteristics of its elements.

Abstract systems are the result of the reflection of reality (real systems) in the human brain.

Their mood is a necessary step to ensure the effective interaction of a person with the surrounding world. Abstract (ideal) systems are objective on the source of origin, since their original source is objectively existing validity.

Abstract systems are divided into direct display systems (reflecting certain aspects of real systems) and the system of generalizing (generalizing) display. The first includes mathematical and heuristic models, and the second conceptual systems (theory of methodological construction) and languages.

Based on the concept of the external environment, the system is divided into: open, closed (closed, isolated) and combined. The division of systems on open and closed is associated with their characteristic features: the ability to save properties in the presence of external influences. If the system is insensitive to external influences can be considered closed. Otherwise - open.

An open is a system that interacts with the environment. All real systems are open. The open system is part of a more general system or several systems. If you become identified from this formation, the actual system under consideration, the remaining part is its environment.

The open system is associated with the environment defined communications, that is, the network of external relations of the system. The allocation of external relations and the description of the mechanisms of interaction "system-environment" is the central task of the theory of open systems. Consideration of open systems allows you to expand the concept of system structure. For open systems, it includes not only internal connections between the elements, but also external communications with the medium. When describing the structure, external communication channels are trying to divide on the input (by which the medium affects the system) and the weekend (on the contrary). The combination of the elements of these channels belonging to their own system is called input and output poles of the system. At least one element has a connection with an external environment at least one inlet pole and one output, which it is associated with the external environment.

For each communication system with all subordinate subsystems and between the latter, are internal, and all others are external. Relations between systems and external environments as well as between the elements of the system are usually directed.

It is important to emphasize that in any real system due to the laws of dialectics on the general connection of phenomena of events, the number of all relationships is huge, so it is impossible to take into account and research is impossible, so their number is artificially limited. At the same time, it is impractical to take into account all possible connections, since among them there are many irrelevant, practically not affecting the functioning of the system and the number of solutions obtained (from the point of view of solved tasks). If the change in communication characteristics, its exception (complete gap) leads to a significant deterioration in the system, a decrease in efficiency, then such a connection is essential. One of the most important tasks of the researcher is to allocate significant to consider the system in the context of the communication problem and separate them from insignificant. Due to the fact that the input and weekend poles of the system are not always able to distinguish clearly, you have to resort to a certain idealization of actions. The greatest idealization takes place when considering the closed system.

A closed is a system that does not interact with the medium or interacts with the medium strictly defined. In the first case, it is assumed that the system does not have inlets, and in the second that there is an inlet poles, but the environmental impact is unchanged and fully (in advance) is known. It is obvious that in the last assumption, these impacts can actually be attributed to the system, and it can be considered as closed. For a closed system, any element has connections only with the elements of the system itself.

Of course, closed systems are some abstraction of a real situation, since, strictly speaking, there are no isolated systems. However, it is obvious that simplifying the description of the system are to refuse external relations, may result in useful results, simplify the system research. All real systems are closely or weakly connected with the external environment - open. If the temporary gap or change of characteristic external relations does not cause deviations in the functioning of the system over the limits installed in advance, the system is associated with the external environment weakly. Otherwise, closely.

Combined systems contain open and closed subsystems. The presence of combined systems indicates a complex combination of open and closed subsystems.

Depending on the structure and space-time properties of the system are divided into simple, complex and large.

Simple - systems that do not have branched structures consisting of a small number of interconnections and a small number of elements. Such elements serve to perform the simplest functions, hierarchical levels cannot be isolated. A distinctive feature of simple systems is deterministicity (clear certainty) of the nomenclature, the number of elements and connections both within the system and with the medium.

Complicated - characterized by a large number of elements and internal connections, their inhomogeneity and varying-quality, structural variety, perform a complex function or a number of functions. Components of complex systems can be considered as subsystems, each of which can be detailed by even simpler subsystems, etc. As long as the element is received.

The system is called complex (from the gnoseological position) if its cognition requires the joint attraction of many models of theories, and in some cases, many scientific disciplines, as well as accounting for the uncertainty of probabilistic and incredible nature. The most characteristic manifestation of this definition is multipleability.

The model is some system, the study of which serves as a means to obtain information about another system. This description of systems (mathematical, verbal, etc.) Displays a certain group Its properties.

The system is called difficult if in real validity of the relief (essential) shows the signs of its complexity. Namely:

a) Structural complexity - is determined by the number of elements of the system, the number and variety of types of links between them, the number of hierarchical levels and the total number of system subsystems. The main types are considered next species Relations: structural (including hierarchical), functional, causal (causal), information, spatial-temporary;

b) the complexity of the functioning (behavior) is determined by the characteristics of the set of states, the rules of transition from the state to the state, the impact of the system on the environment and environment on the system, the degree of uncertainty of the listed characteristics and rules;

c) the complexity of the choice of behavior - in multi-native situations where the choice of behavior is determined by the purpose of the system, the flexibility of reactions to the pre-unknown effects of the medium;

d) the complexity of development is determined by the characteristics of evolutionary or hoppy processes.

Naturally, all signs are considered in relationships. Hierarchical construction is a characteristic sign of complex systems, while the levels of hierarchy can be both homogeneous and inhomogeneous. For complex systems, such factors are inherent as the inability to predict their behavior, that is, weakly predictability, their secrecy, a variety of conditions.

Sophisticated systems can be divided into the following factor subsystems:

1) a decisive, which takes global solutions in interaction with the external environment and distributes local tasks between all other subsystems;

2) information, which ensures the collection, processing and transmission of information necessary for the adoption of global solutions and the execution of local tasks;

3) managing to implement global solutions;

4) homeostaste supporting dynamic equilibrium inside systems and regulating energy flows and substances in subsystems;

5) Adaptive, accumulating experience in the learning process to improve the structure and functions of the system.

A large system is called a system that is unobserved simultaneously from the position of one observer in time or in space for which a spatial factor is essential, the number of subsystems of which is very large, and the composition is heterogeneous.

The system can be big and complex. Sophisticated systems combines a more extensive group of systems, that is, large - subclass of complex systems.

The fundamental and synthesis of large and complex systems are the procedures for decomposition and aggregation.

Decomposition - separation of systems into parts, followed by independent consideration of individual parts.

Obviously, decomposition is a concept associated with the model, since the system itself cannot be disseminated without disorders of the properties. At the modeling level, the disparate bonds are replaced by equivalents, or the systems of the systems are built so that its decomposition into individual parts is natural.

With regard to large and complex systems, decomposition is a powerful research tool.

Aggregation is a concept opposite to decomposition. In the process of research, there is a need to combine the elements of the system in order to consider it with more general positions.

Decomposition and aggregation are two opposite parties to the approach to the consideration of large and complex systems used in dialectical unity.

Systems for which the status of the system is uniquely determined by the initial values \u200b\u200band can be predicted for any subsequent point in time, called deterministic.

Stochastic systems - systems, changes in which are random. With random impacts of data status data is not enough to predict at the subsequent point in time.

According to the degree of organization: well-organized, poorly organized (diffuse).

To present an analyzed object or process in the form of a well-organized system means to determine the elements of the system, their relationship, the rules of combining into larger components. The problem situation can be described as a mathematical expression. The solution of the problem when presenting it in the form of a well-organized system is carried out by analytical methods of the formalized presentation of the system.

Examples of well-organized systems: a solar system that describes the most significant patterns of motion of the planets around the Sun; mapping an atom in the form of a planetary system consisting of kernel and electrons; Description of the operation of a complex electronic device using a system of equations that takes into account the features of the conditions for its operation (the presence of noise, instability of power sources, etc.).

The description of the object in the form of a well-organized system is applied in cases where the deterministic description can be offered and experimentally prove the legality of its application, the adequacy of the model of the real process. Attempts to apply the class of well-organized systems for the presentation of complex multicomponent objects or multi-criteria problems are poorly removed: they require unacceptably high time spent, practically unrealized and inadequate to the used models.

Poorly organized systems. When presenting an object as a poorly organized or diffuse system, the task is not set to determine all the components taken into account, their properties and relationship between them and the objectives of the system. The system is characterized by a certain set of macroparameters and patterns that are based on a study of not the entire object or class of phenomena, and based on a certain component sampling rules characterizing the object being studied or process. On the basis of such a sample study, characteristics or patterns (statistical, economic) and distribute them to the entire system as a whole. At the same time, the corresponding reservations are made. For example, when obtaining statistical patterns, they are distributed to the behavior of the entire system with some trust probability.

The approach to the display of objects in the form of diffuse systems is widely used when: description of mass maintenance systems, determining the number of states at enterprises and institutions, studying documentary flows of information in control systems, etc.

From the point of view of the nature of the functions, special, multifunctional, and universal systems differ.

Special systems are characterized by the uniqueness of the destination and the narrow professional specialization of the service personnel (relatively simple).

Multifunction systems allow several functions on the same structure on the same structure. Example: production system that provides a production of various products within a certain nomenclature.

For universal systems: many actions are implemented on the same structure, however, the composition of the functions of sight and the amount is less uniform (less defined).

By the nature of development, there are two classes of systems: stable and developing.

The stable system structure and functions are practically not changed during the entire period of its existence and, as a rule, the quality of the functioning of stable systems as their elements wear only deteriorates. Recovery activities can usually only reduce the pace of deterioration.

An excellent feature of developing systems is that over time, their structure and functions acquire significant changes. The functions of the system are more constant, although often they are modified. Almost unchanged only their appointment remains. Developing systems have a higher complexity.

In order of complication of behavior: automatic, decisive, self-organizing, foreseen, transforming.

Automatic: unambiguously react to a limited set of external influences, their internal organization is adapted to the transition to an equilibrium state when deriving from it (homeostasis).

Decisive: have permanent criteria for distinguishing their constant response to wide classes of external influences. The constancy of the internal structure is maintained by replacing elements failed.

Self-organizing: have flexible criteria for distinguishing and flexible reactions to external influences adapting to different types of impact. The stability of the internal structure of the highest forms of such systems is provided by permanent self-reproduction.

Self-organizing systems have signs of diffuse systems: stocitality of behavior, nonstationarity of individual parameters and processes. These features are added to this as unpredictability of behavior; the ability to adapt to changing environmental conditions, change the structure when the system interacts with the environment, while maintaining the properties of integrity; The ability to form possible behavioral options and choose the best and other of them. Sometimes this class is divided into subclasses, highlighting adaptive or self-promoted systems, self-healing, self-reproducing and other subclasses corresponding to various properties of developing systems.

Examples: biological organizations, collective behavior of people, organization of management at the enterprise level, industry, states in general, i.e. In those systems where there is a human factor.

If the stability in its complexity begins to exceed the complex effects of the outside world - these are predictive systems: it may foresee the further course of interaction.

Turning are imaginary complex systems at the highest level of difficulties that are not constant by the continuance of existing media. They can change real media, while maintaining their individuality. Science Examples of such systems are not yet known.

The system can be divided into species on the signs of the structure of their construction and significance of the role that separate components play in comparison with the roles of other parts.

In some systems, one of the parts can belong a dominant role (its significance \u003e\u003e (symbol of the ratio of "significant superiority") significance of other parts). Such a component - will act as a central, defining the functioning of the entire system. Such systems are called centralized.

In other systems, all components of their components are approximately equally significant. Structurally, they are located not around some centralized component, but are interrelated sequentially or in parallel and have about the same values \u200b\u200bfor the functioning of the system. These are decentralized systems.

Systems can be classified by appointment. Among the technical and organizational systems are distinguished: producing, managers serving.

In producing systems, processes of obtaining some products or services are implemented. They, in turn, are divided into substantive-energy, in which the transformation of the natural environment or raw materials into the final product of the real or energy nature, or transportation of this kind of products is carried out; and informational - to collect, transfer and transform information and providing information services.

Appointment of management systems - organization and management of material and energy and information processes.

Service systems are engaged in supporting the defined limits of the performance of producing and control systems.

Conscribed in this section classes of systems are conveniently used as approaches at the initial stage of modeling any task, because Having determined the system class for a real object, it is possible to confidently give recommendations on the choice of a method that will allow it more adequately to display it.